Unit 11: Testing and Individual Differences

Section 1: Key Concepts in Intelligence Testing

Section 2: The Evolution of Intelligence Testing

Section 3: Basic Questions in Intelligence Testing

Section 4: Extremes of Intelligence

Section 5: Heredity and Environment

Section 6: New Directions in Assessment

Section 1: Key Concepts in Intelligence Testing
Ref: pp. 346-351

A psychological test is a standardized measure of a sample of a person's behavior.

Types of Tests

· Intelligence tests measure general mental ability.

· Aptitude tests measure specific components of mental ability (e.g., verbal reasoning, abstract reasoning, perceptual speed and accuracy).

· Personality tests measure various aspects of personality, including motives, interests, values, and attitudes.
Ref: Diagram p. 347

Standardization and Norms

· Standardization refers to the uniform procedures used in the administration and scoring of a test.

· Test norms provide information about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on that test.

· A percentile score indicates the percentage of people who score at or below the score one has obtained.

Reliability

· Reliability refers to the measurement consistency of a test.

· The reliability of a test can be checked through the test-retest approach (administering the test to the same people twice).

· Test-retest reliability is measured by a correlation coefficient (-1.00 to +1.00).
Ref: Diagrams p. 348

Validity

· Validity refers to the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.

· Content validity refers to the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover.

· Criterion-related validity is estimated by correlating subjects' scores on a test with their scores on another measure (an independent criterion) of the trait, (e.g., the validity of a SAT can be correlated with performance at university).

· Construct validity is the extent to which a test measures a hypothetical construct.

· A hypothetical construct is something that is difficult to quantify, e.g,. creativity, intelligence, or independence.

· The construct validity of a test is measured by comparing it to similar tests.
Ref: Diagrams p. 350

Section 2: The Evolution of Psychological Testing
Ref: pp. 351-353

Galton & Hereditary Genius

· Francis Galton was the first to make the connection between heredity and intelligence.

· His theory was that higher intelligence was a result of greater sensual accuity. Obviously, his attempts to prove this were failures.

· Galtan developed the ideas of nature vs. nurture, correlation, and percentile scores.

Binet & Mental Age Tests

· Alfred Binet developed the first useful intelligence test. It measured reasoning skills.

· Binet's test was designed for children. It measured the child's "mental age."

Terman & the Stanford-Binet IQ Test

· Lewis Terman improved Binet's test.

· The Stanford-Binet gave an intelligence quotient (IQ) that was a child's mental age divided by the child's chronological age multiplied by 100. The scale, therefore, is centered on 100.

· The Stanford-Binet became the most popular intelligence test.
Ref: Diagram p. 352

Wechsler & the WAIS

· David Wechsler created the first intelligence test for adults, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

· Weschsler included non-verbal reasoning on his test and developed a normal distribution scheme instead of an IQ score.
Ref: Diagram p. 355

Modern Intelligence Testing

· The WAIS has been modified for use with children (WISC); the Stanford-Binet has adopted elements of the WAIS (including normal distribution) for use with adults.

· Individual tests are usually done by a psychologist. Group tests are usually done by educators with students.

Section 3: Basic Questions about Intelligence Testing
Ref: pp. 354-358

What Do IQ Scores Mean?

· The normal distribution is the bell shaped curve that represents many characteristics of human behavior.

· The mean IQ is 100, with an SD of 15.
Ref: Diagram p.356

What Do Intelligence Tests Measure?

· IQ tests measure a variety of abstract reasoning skills.

· IQ tests measure both intelligence potential and knowledge.

Are Intelligence Tests Reliable?

· The correlation of test-retest reliability is over +0.90.

· Factors such as poor motivation or anxiety can influence results.

· Like all psychological tests, IQ tests measure a sample of a person's behavior.

Are Intelligence Tests Valid?

· IQ tests measure the kind of intelligence needed for academic work.

· IQ tests do not assess general intelligence in a broad sense. For example, they do not measure creativity, practical problem solving, or social skills.

· IQ is correlated with education.

· People who score high on IQ tests tend to get better jobs than those that score low.

· IQ tests are biased to Western culture.
Ref: Diagram p. 357

Section 4: Extremes of Intelligence
Ref: pp. 359-362

Mental Retardation

· Mental retardation refers to subaverage mental ability accompanied by deficiencies in adaptive skills that originate in childhood.

· Subaverage intelligence is usually defined as below 70 IQ (about 2% of the population), though exact definitions of mental retardation are difficult to determine.

· Mental retardation is classified as mild (85% of cases), moderate, severe, or profound.

· The causes of most cases of mental retardation is unknown, though many have biological origins (e.g., Down's syndrome) and some have environmental factors (e.g., mild mental retardation is more common in children from working class backgrounds).
Ref: Diagrams pp. 359, 360

Giftedness

· Giftedness is often described as an above 130 IQ (about 2% of the population), though definitions of giftedness vary. "Giftedness" usually refers to intelligence.

· Contrary to the stereotype, gifted children do not have difficulties fitting in socially, though some difficulties have been found with profoundly gifted children (over and 180 IQ).

· Children with high IQs tend to have better physical health, social skills, and emotional stability.

· The most famous study of giftedness was the longitudinal study of 1500 children with an average IQ of 150 started by Terman in 1921. This is the longest running study in psychology. Though the children tended to become highly successful adults.

· Though IQ is helpful, it must be combined with motivation and creativity to result in high achievement or success in life.
Ref: Diagram p. 361

Section 5: Heredity & Environment
Ref: pp. 362-372

Heredity

· Twin studies have indicated a strong genetic basis to intelligence. The IQ correlation for identical twins raised apart is greater than that of fraternal twins raised together.

· Adoption studies have revealed a statistically significant correlation between adoptive children's IQ and that of their biological parents.

· Estimates of the importance of heredity (i.e., heredity estimates) for intelligence range from about 50% to as high as 80%.
Ref: Diagram p. 363, 365

Environment

· Adoption studies have revealed a statistically significant correlation between children and their adoptive parents and adoptive siblings.

· Studies on deprived and enriched children have revealed a correlation between environment and IQ scores.

· Education and the importance placed on learning in the home has a correlation with a child's IQ score.

· The Flynn Effect: IQ scores have been getting higher since the tests were introduced. This may be the result of better education and better nutrition.

Heredity & Environment

· Sandra Scarr and others have theorized that heredity sets limits on IQ, but that environmental factors determine where someone falls within these limits.

· The reaction range (genetically determined limits on IQ) is estimated at about 25 IQ points.
Ref: Diagram p. 366

Culture & IQ Scores

· Racial minorities (specifically blacks and hispanics) in the USA score up to 15 points lower on IQ tests.

· Arthur Jensen and others have argued that this is primarily genetic. However, the differences in IQ scores may be entirely environmental (which Jensen acknowledges).

· Socio-economic factors probably play a large role in the scores of racial minorities. The fact that lower class whites tend to score about 25 points lower than upper class whites supports this view.

· Claude Steele further argues that stereotype vulnerability plays a role in IQ. For example, a black man who performs poorly on a test might be perceived (by others as well as by himself) to have done poorly because he is black. Stereotype vulnerability is also experienced by women in the workforce.

· IQ tests have been criticized for being culturally biased against minorities, but there is little research to support this. One problem is that Chinese and Japanese minorities in the USA tend to score higher than whites.
Ref: Diagrams pp. 368, 370, 372

Section 6: New Directions in Intelligence Testing

Emphasis on Individual Abilities

· Charles Spearman developed the factor analysis on which IQ tests are based.

· A factor analysis is a statistical procedure that analyzes correlations between variables. If a number of variables are correlated, a single factor may be influencing them all.

· For the variety of mental abilities assessed by an IQ test, Spearman considered the single factor to influencing them to be g (general mental ability, aka Spearman's g).

· The idea of g was later challenged by psychologists. This includes:

· g should be divided into a number of intelligences.

· g should be divided into fluid intelligence (reasoning, memory, speed) and crystallized intelligence (problem solving, practical applications).

· The Stanford-Binet now uses subtests to assess intelligence.
Ref: Diagrams pp. 373, 374

Biology & Intelligence

· Jensen and others are still pursuing the genetic relationship between intelligence and heredity by studying reaction time under the premise "fast is smart."
Ref: Diagram p. 375

Cognition & Intelligence

· Robert Sternberg developed the triarchic theory of intelligence.

· Contextual subtheory maintains that intelligence is culturally defined.

· Experiential subtheory focuses on the relationship between experience and intelligence.

· Componential subtheory focuses on individual mental processes.
Ref: Diagram p. 375

What Is Intelligence?

· Many psychologists have suggested that IQ tests are biased toward verbal and math skills.

· Howard Gardner proposed eight separate and independent intelligences. This is sometimes referred to as "multiple intelligences." They are logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatiall, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.
Ref: Diagram p. 376